The Tonghak Peasant Revolution (Korean: 동학 농민 혁명) took place between 11 January 1894 and 25 December 1895 in Korea. The peasants were primarily followers of Donghak, a Neo-Confucian movement that rejected Western technology and ideals.
The Revolution began in the province of Gobu-gun. In the early 1890s, Jo Byeong-gap, nominated magistrate of the gun in 1892, enforced harsh, oppressive policies upon the local peasant population. Correspondingly, in March 1894, a group of peasants led by Jeon Bong-jun and Kim Gae-nam began an uprising against local authorities. The initial revolt was suppressed under Yi Yong-tae, and Jeon Bong-jun fled to nearby Taein. Jeon gathered an army in Mount Paektu and recaptured Gobu in April. The rebels then defeated governmental forces in the Battle of Hwangtojae and the Battle of the Hwangryong River. Jeon then captured Jeonju Fortress and fought in a siege against Hong Gye-hun's government forces. In May, the rebels agreed on a truce through the Treaty of Jeonju. However, an unstable peace continued throughout the summer.
The alarmed government requested the Qing dynasty for military intervention, to which the Qing responded with a deployment of 2,700 soldiers. Angered that the Qing government had not informed them before intervening (as promised in the Convention of Tientsin), Japan started the First Sino-Japanese War. The war resulted in an expulsion of Chinese influence in Korea and also signaled an end to the Self-Strengthening Movement in China itself.
Growing Japanese dominance in the Korean Peninsula caused anxiety amongst the rebels. From September to October, the Southern and Northern leaders negotiated the plans for the future in Samrye. On 12 October, a coalition army of Northern and Southern Jeobs was formed, and the army, numbering 25,000–200,000 (records differ), attacked Gongju. After several battles, the rebel army was decisively defeated in the Battle of Ugeumchi, and the rebels were again overthrown in the Battle of Taein. Hostility continued deep into the spring of 1895. The rebel leaders were captured in various locations in the Honam Region, and most were executed by a mass hanging in March.
Background
During the late 19th century, Korean society faced various social problems such as inequality, corruption, and excessive taxation. These problems later sparked a series of peasant-led rebellions, which began with the Gwanseo Peasant War. These events weakened the Joseon government and undermined its control over various regions of Korea outside of Hanseong.
Founding of Donghak
Various secret societies formed, apart from the rebellions, including the Salbangye, 'Association of the Killers of the Yangban (aristocrats),' the Saljugye, 'Association of the Killers of the (slave's) masters,' the Salryakgye, 'Association of Killers and robbers,' the Geomgye, 'Sword association,' the Judogye, 'Association of the drunk,' the Yudan, 'League of Wanderers', and the Nokrimdang, 'Group of the Green Woods' (Nokrimdang were 'noble thieves,' who stole from the rich and gave to the poor).
In this turbulent age, the Donghak religion was formed. Its founder, Choe Je-u, described the founding of the religion, which Choe Sihyeong, the second Donghak leader, later transcribed:
By 1860, I heard rumours that the people of the West worship God, care not for wealth, conquer the world, build temples, and spread their faith. I was wondering whether I, too, could do such a thing. On an April day, my mind was unnerved, and my body trembled... Suddenly, a voice could be heard. I rose and asked who he was.
"Do not fear nor be scared! The people of the world call me Hanulnim. How do you not know me?" Said Hanul. I asked the reason he had appeared to me.
"...I made you in this world so that you could teach my holy word to the people. Do not doubt my word!" Hanulnim replied.
"Do you seek to teach the people with Christianity?" I asked again.
"No. I have a magical talisman... use this talisman and save the people from disease, and use this book to teach the people to venerate me!"
Donghak was a mixture of various religions. Its core tenets and beliefs (monotheism, sacred books, organized religion) are similar to Christianity. Choe himself said that "the meanings [between Christianity and Donghak] are the same; only the words are different". The Donghak conversion rite, in which hundreds of people gathered in an open place and knelt before a cup of clean water, was partly influenced by the Christian baptism ritual.
However, many direct influences were from shamanism and folk beliefs. Witnesses record that Choe Je-u participated in animistic rituals to mountain deities. His chants and the Sword Dance were also derived from shamanism.
Certain beliefs were unique to Donghak. Choe Je-u said that "All humans are Hanulnim". Choe promoted human equality and created certain ideologies, such as the belief that the world was a cycle of 5,000 years (Jeoncheon and Hucheon) and that this cycle was ending to make way for a new world. This made Donghak potentially dangerous to the Joseon Dynasty, which banned the religion and executed Choe in 1864 for 'Tricking and Lying to the Foolish People.'
Nevertheless, Donghak spread across Gyeongsang Province by the 1870s, causing the need for a better organization. Donghak was organized into 'Jeob' and 'Po.' A 'Jeobju' administered a 'Jeob.' For example, Jeon Bong-jun, the leader of the revolution, was Jeobju of Gobu. Under a Jeobju was a 'Myeonjeobju.' In large towns (such as Taein or Jeonju) were a 'Great Jeobju,' as Kim Gae-nam was the Great Jeobju of Taein. Various Jeobs were organized into a 'Po,' and a 'Poju' led a Po. The 'Gyoju,' at the time Choe Sihyeong, led the whole Donghak religion.
Yi Pil-je's Revolt
In 1871, Yi Pil-je, Jeobju of Yeonghae, revolted using the Donghak infrastructure. The revolt failed but proved that Donghak was dangerous to the feudalistic Korean society.
Yi Pil-je's Revolt seriously undermined Donghak in Gyeongsang Province, causing Choe Sihyeong to spread the religion to the populous provinces of Chungcheong and Jeolla. Choe wandered around these two provinces, spreading Donghak. Son Hwa-jung was one of the first to convert in 1881, and he converted Jeon in 1891. Son Byong-hi was converted in 1882 by Choe, as did Kim Gae-nam in 1890. As seen below, he claimed conversion in 1891.
Gyojo Shinwon movement
By the 1890s, Donghak believers began a petition to overturn the 1863 Choe Je-u's execution charges. The religion was split by this time into the 'Northern Jeob' and the 'Southern Jeob.' Seo Inju, leader of the Southern Jeob, asked Choe Sihyeong, the Gyoju, for a petition. Choe did not answer the request, presumably remembering the effects of Yi Pil-je's Revolt on Donghak in Gyeongsang. Seo Inju and the Southern Jeob independently held a petition to free imprisoned Donghak believers and to restore the honor of Choe Je-u, which was not easily granted. In November 1892, Jeon Bong-jun led the Samrye Petition, petitioning for:
- Do not ban Donghak.
- Expel all Western missionaries and merchants.
- Kill corrupt officials.
In December, there was another petition in the market of Boeun. Many Southern Jeob believers thought they should march into Seoul and petition before the king, but Choe Sihyeong finally quelled the Boeun petition, instead penning a letter to King Gojong:
We... are determined to follow this new doctrine (Donghak) only because we want people to reform themselves, to be loyal to their king, to show filial piety to their parents, to respect their teachers, and to show friendship to their fellow men.
In response, Gojong ordered the Northern messengers to "go to your homes. If you do, I may grant your plea". Meanwhile, Seo Inju and the Southern Jeob were threatening Westerners and Japanese with bodily harm, saying, "If you do not flee by March the seventh, we shall all kill you. You are causing injustice in a foreign land." This was attached to American, French, and Japanese legations, Christian churches and schools, and districts with a large number of foreigners taking residence.
Jeon Bong-jun, meanwhile, led his followers into Boeun, which became the most violent and revolutionary petition in the Gyojo Shinwon Movement. His followers all wore blue clothes with red gloves. About 80,000 believers, with the flags "Expel Westerners and Japanese," gathered in the market and built an earthen fortress. Revolutionary thoughts include, "In other countries, the people hold councils and decide upon the government. This petition is like that. Why suppress it?" formed. The petition was also more extreme. The requests were:
- Reclaim the honour of founder Choe Je-u.
- Cease the persecution of Donghak believers.
- Chase away colonial powers.
- Cease all imports of foreign merchandise, wear cotton, and use necessities made in Korea.
- Dispose of the Min family of oligarchical power.
- Lower taxes.
- Ban the inflation-causing Dangojeon coin.
- Stop illegal taxation.
Northern Jeob leaders, such as Choe Sihyeong and Son Byong-hi, feared that the government would execute Donghak believers and stopped the petition within three days. Jeon Bong-jun returned to Gobu.
Gobu Revolt
The rebellion's immediate cause was the conduct of Jo Byeong-gap, the ruling official of Gobu. After his capture, Jeon gave a detailed account of Jo's misdeeds:
- He built the Manseokbo Reservoir under the existing Min Reservoir (now Yedeung Reservoir). He took water taxes from the peasants, two sacks of rice for using the upper reservoir, and a sack of rice for using the lower reservoir. He collected seven hundred sacks of rice in total.
- He promised peasants who farmed abandoned land would be exempt from taxes for five years, but he forced them to pay taxes in the autumn of 1893.
- He fined affluent peasants for dubious crimes, including 'infidelity,' 'lack of harmony,' 'adultery,' and 'needless talents,' by which he collected 20,000 nyang (nyang a unit of Korean currency, equivalent to seventy US dollars, making 20,000 nyang comparable 1.4 million U.S. dollars).
- He taxed a thousand nyang (the equivalent of 700 thousand US dollars) to build a monument to his father, Jo Hugyun, who had been the magistrate of Taein.
- To send sacks of rice to the government, he sent only sacks of spoiled rice to Seoul, taking unspoiled sacks for himself.
- While he was building the reservoir, he heedlessly cut down trees centuries old and did not give any wages to the workers.
Of these, the construction of the Manseokbo reservoir caused the most fury. Yedeung Reservoir had caused the Baedeul fields to not suffer from starvation ever since Yedeung was built. However, the construction of the new reservoir blocked creeks in the region, causing widespread damage through flooding.
Donghak believers and angered peasants began forming a rebel army. They used the Sabal Tongmun, whose names were written around a circular cone to form a circle. The Sabal Tongmun made the leader of the writers unclear (because it was impossible to know who had signed their name first). On 10 January 1894, a thousand rebels gathered in an abandoned horse ranch. Splitting into two armies, they destroyed three of the four gates of Gobu and occupied the government office. Jo fled Gobu to Jeonju (he was exiled after the war ended and returned from his exile to become a judge).
For a week, the rebels destroyed prisons and freed innocent prisoners, armed themselves with weapons from the local armory, punished corrupt officials who had been captured, returned taxed and fined property to original owners, and destroyed Manseokbo Reservoir. However, the crisis ended when Jo was replaced by Park Won-myeong, who convinced the rebels to disband.
First revolt
Jeon and Kim went south to Mujang, where they met Son Hwa-jung. The rebels organized adequately in Mujang, and on 20 March, the 4,000 rebels of Mujang turned towards Mount Baek, Gobu. While camped in Mount Baek, the army grew to tens of thousands. Choe Deokyeong's 300 peasants joined them from the north. Here, the aphorism came: "When sitting, a white mountain; when standing, a bamboo mountain." (rebels mostly wore white and used bamboo spears. The term may have appeared earlier, however, as Mount Juk, meaning 'bamboo mountain,' could only be seen when standing, as it was covered by smaller Mount Baek, 'white mountain.') On 22 March, the rebels destroyed the reservoir and burned down governmental offices and storage.
The rebels camped for four days in Gobu, and new rebels joined them daily. After making Jeon Bong-jun the leader and Kim Gae-nam and Son Hwa-Jung as generals, the rebels occupied Taein (1 April) and Buan (4 April). The leaders also ordered the rebels to follow the four guidelines:
- Do not kill the innocent, and refrain from eating farm animals.
- Open the Hucheon through loyalty and piety and appease the people.
- Defeat every single barbarian of Japan and purify the holy land.
- Drive the army into Seoul and kill every member of the Min family.
The rebels also "did not seek alcohol and women and did not smoke tobacco." They did not forcefully take food but paid for them in money.
Battle of Hwangtojae
The government sent Yi Gyeonghyo to quell the rebellion and made an emergency army of 700 soldiers and 600 merchants. The 10,000 rebels lured governmental forces into Hwangto Pass. In the dawn of April the 7th, the governmental soldiers charged into the rebel camp but found it empty. Soldiers were in chaos. Suddenly, the rebels, moving under the cover of fog, emerged from the mountains and attacked the governmental forces, killing a thousand soldiers. Most of the rebels were unharmed in the thus concluded Battle of Hwangtojae.