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Construction
Construction of Angkor Wat
Hindu-Buddhist temple complex in Cambodia
- 802 – 12th century CE
- Southeast Asia
Construction
Hindu-Buddhist temple complex in Cambodia
Fetching the article from Wikipedia…
Angkor Wat is a Theravada Buddhist temple complex, originally built as a Vaishnava Hindu temple, in Siem Reap, Cambodia. It is the largest religious complex in the world. Located on a site measuring 162.6 hectares (1.6 km2; 401.8 acres) within the medieval capital of Angkor, it was constructed between 1113 and 1150 CE during the reign of the Khmer king Suryavarman II as a Hindu temple dedicated to Vishnu. From the late 13th century onward, the complex was gradually transformed into a Buddhist temple as Khmer kings adopted Buddhism. Angkor Wat has remained a Buddhist monastery and an active center of Buddhist worship into the present day. It is noted for its monumental scale and extensive bas-reliefs and an architectural unity characteristic of Khmer architecture. Unlike most Angkorian temples, it is oriented toward the west. It is a symbol of Cambodia and appears on the Cambodian national flag.
The temple was commissioned by Suryavarman II in Yaśodharapura, the capital of the Khmer Empire, as a state temple and is generally considered to have been intended as his mausoleum. Its architectural design combines the temple-mountain and galleried temple forms characteristic of Khmer architecture. The overall layout is commonly interpreted as a symbolic representation of Mount Meru, a cosmological concept shared by both Hindu and Buddhist traditions. The complex is surrounded by a broad moat and enclosed by an outer wall, within which three progressively elevated galleries rise toward a central quincunx of towers.
From the late 13th century onward, Angkor Wat became predominantly associated with Theravāda Buddhism. It was adapted for Buddhist worship and has remained in continuous religious use, a factor that contributed to its preservation and survival as a major religious, cultural, and national symbol of Cambodia.
The temple complex fell into disuse before restoration work began on it in the 20th century, with various international agencies involved in the project. Restoration was coordinated by the International Coordinating Committee for the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC-Angkor), established in 1993 under UNESCO. Major contributors included France (via the École française d'Extrême-Orient), Japan (JASA), India (Archaeological Survey of India), Germany (GACP), the United States (World Monuments Fund), South Korea, China, and Italy.
The temple is known for its architecture and its extensive bas-reliefs and devatas adorning its walls. The Angkor area was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992. Angkor Wat is a major tourist attraction and attracts more than 2.5 million visitors every year.
The modern name Angkor Wat, means "Temple City" or "City of Temples" in Khmer language. Angkor (អង្គរ, ângkô), meaning "city" or "capital city", is a vernacular form of the word nokor (នគរ nôkô), which comes from the Sanskrit/Pali word nagara (Devanāgarī: नगर). Wat (វត្ត voə̆t) is the word for "temple", also derived from Sanskrit/Pali vāṭa (Devanāgarī: वाट), meaning "enclosure". The original name of the temple was Vrah Viṣṇuloka or Parama Viṣṇuloka meaning "the sacred dwelling of Vishnu". The term might also mean "The king who has gone to the supreme world of Vishnu", referring to Suryavarman II posthumously and intended to venerate his glory and memory.
Angkor Wat was commissioned by the Khmer king Suryavarman II (ruled 1113–c. 1150) in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura (present-day Angkor), the capital of the Khmer Empire. The construction of the temple commenced in 1122 CE and was completed in 1150 CE. The temple complex was constructed on the suggestion of Divākarapaṇḍita (1040–c. 1120). The temple was dedicated to Hindu god Vishnu and the original religious motifs were derived from Hinduism. It was built as the king's state temple in the capital city. Historians have often thought that Angkor Wat served as a “temple-city,” but modern analyses of the site suggest that it housed a population of between 3,000 and 4,300 residents. As there are no foundation stela or any contemporary inscriptions referring to the temple's name that have been found, its original name is unknown and it may have been known as Vrah Viṣṇuloka after the presiding deity. The work on the temple ceased after the king's death, leaving some of the bas-relief decoration unfinished.
In 1178, approximately 27 years after the death of Suryavarman II, Angkor was sacked by the Chams, the traditional enemies of the Khmer. Thereafter, the Khmer empire was restored by Jayavarman VII, who established a new capital at Angkor Thom and the Bayon as the state temple, situated to the north. The temple was dedicated to Buddhism as the king's wife Indradevi was a devout Mahayana Buddhist who encouraged him to convert. Angkor Wat was therefore also gradually converted into a Buddhist site with many Hindu sculptures replaced by Buddhist art.
After the transformation from a Hindu centre of worship to Buddhism towards the end of the 12th century, Angkor Wat has continued to serve as a Buddhist centre until the present day. Historical records show that Chinese envoy Zhou Daguan and traveller Zheng He visited the Angkor Wat in the 13–14th centuries. Zheng He studied the temple architecture which was later incorporated in the Dabaoen Temple and Glazed Pagoda. Archaeologists have also theorized that Angkor Wat was used as a defensive fortification during this period, with gateway blockages and holes in the outer wall potentially implying the presence of a defensive structure. It is thought that these fortifications would have been constructed alongside the fortifications to the Khmer capital, Angkor Thom, in response to the encroaching threat of the Ayutthaya Empire. After the Khmer empire's fall to the Ayutthaya in 1431, Angkor Wat continued to be inhabited, with dating showing regular maintenance of the site's ponds during this period. Angkor Wat is unusual among the Angkor temples in that although it was largely neglected after the 16th century, it was never completely abandoned. Fourteen inscriptions dated from the 17th century, discovered in the Angkor area, state that Japanese Buddhist pilgrims had established small settlements alongside Khmer locals. The inscription also tells of Ukondayu Kazufusa, who celebrated the Khmer New Year at Angkor Wat in 1632. Modifications of the temple also occurred in the 17th century, with findings suggesting the demolition of several towers in the mid-1600s.
In the 16th century, Portuguese traders and missionaries discovered a vast stone city hidden in the northern Cambodian forests, that had seemed abandoned for over 150 years. This city contained temples, including Angkor Wat—the largest religious monument—which dominated the site. One of the first recorded visitors was António da Madalena, a Capuchin friar who explored the ruins in 1586. Three years later, he relayed his observations to Diogo do Couto, the official historian of the Portuguese Indies. Do Couto documented the friar's account in his historical writings as follows:
Half a league from this city is a temple called Angar. It is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a pen, particularly since it is like no other building in the world. It has towers and decoration and all the refinements which the human genius can conceive of. There are many smaller towers of similar style, in the same stone, which are gilded. The temple is surrounded by a moat, and access is by a single bridge, protected by two stone tigers so grand and fearsome as to strike terror into the visitor.
— Diogo do Couto
In 1860, the temple was effectively rediscovered by French naturalist and explorer Henri Mouhot with the help of French missionary Father Charles-Émile Bouillevaux. Mouhot popularised the site in the West through the publication of travel notes, in which he wrote:
One of these temples, a rival to that of Solomon, and erected by some ancient Michelangelo, might take an honorable place beside our most beautiful buildings. It is grander than anything left to us by Greece or Rome, and presents a sad contrast to the state of barbarism in which the nation is now plunged.
Mouhot's work was published posthumously in 1864 through the Royal Geographical Society with descriptions of Angkor under the title Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China, Siam, Cambodia and Laos. In 1861, German anthropologist Adolf Bastian undertook a four-year trip to Southeast Asia and his account of this trip titled The People of East Asia, ran to six volumes and was published in 1868. The books detailed the Angkor monuments but lacked drawings of the Angkorian sites.
France adopted Cambodia as a protectorate on 11 August 1863 partly due to the artistic legacy of Angkor Wat and other Khmer monuments in the Angkor region and invaded Siam. This quickly led to Cambodia reclaiming lands in the northwestern corner of the country including Siem Reap, Battambang, and Sisophon which were under Siamese rule from 1795 to 1907. Following excavations at the site, there were no ordinary dwellings or houses or other signs of settlement such as cooking utensils, weapons, or items of clothing usually found at ancient sites.
In the 20th century, a considerable effort was launched to clear the plant overgrowth and restore the temple complex. Conservation d'Angkor (Angkor Conservancy) was established by the École française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO) in 1908. The Conservation d'Angkor was responsible for the research, conservation, and restoration activities carried out at Angkor until the early 1970s with major restoration works undertaken in the 1960s.
Restoration work was interrupted by the Cambodian Civil War when the Khmer Rouge took control of the country during the 1970s and 1980s. Work on Angkor was abandoned during the Khmer Rouge era and the Conservation d'Angkor was disbanded in 1975. Camping Khmer Rouge forces used whatever wood remained in the building structures for firewood, and a shoot-out between Khmer Rouge and Vietnamese forces caused a few bullet holes in bas reliefs. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, far more damage was done to the reliefs by art thieves working out of Cambodia who lopped off many sculptures and other structures, including earlier reconstructions. As with most other ancient temples in Cambodia, Angkor Wat also faced extensive damage and deterioration by a combination of plant overgrowth, fungi, ground movements, war damage, and theft, though the war damage to Angkor Wat's temples was limited compared to the rest of Cambodia's temple ruins.
Between 1986 and 1992, the Archaeological Survey of India carried out restoration work on the temple as France did not recognise the Cambodian government at the time. Criticisms have been raised about both the early French restoration attempts and the later Indian work, with concerns over the damage done to the stone surface by the use of various chemicals and cement.
In 1992, the site was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Simultaneously, Angkor Wat was listed in UNESCO's World Heritage in Danger (later removed in 2004) following an appeal for help by Norodom Sihanouk together with an appeal by UNESCO to the international community to save Angkor. Zoning of the area was designated to protect the Angkor site in 1994, Authority for the Protection and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap (APSARA) was established in 1995 to protect and manage the area, and a law to protect Cambodian heritage was passed in 1996.
In the 21st century, teams from several countries including France, India, Japan and China are involved in Angkor Wat conservation projects. The German Apsara Conservation Project (GACP) was launched to protect the devatas, and other bas-reliefs that decorate the temple from further damage when the organization's survey found that around 20% of the reliefs were in very poor condition mainly because of natural erosion and deterioration of the stone, but also in part also due to earlier restoration efforts. Microbial biofilms degraded sandstone at Angkor Wat. Other work involved the repair of collapsed sections of the structure and prevention of further collapse. For example, the west facade of the upper level was buttressed by scaffolding in 2002. A Japanese team completed the restoration of the north library of the outer enclosure in 2005. Replicas have been made to replace some of the lost or damaged sculptures.
In December 2015, it was announced that a research team from the University of Sydney found a previously unseen ensemble of buried towers that were built and demolished during the construction of Angkor Wat, as well as a massive structure, with wooden fortifications, of unknown purpose on its south side. The findings included evidence of low-density residential occupation, a road grid, ponds and mounds in the region. These discoveries indicated that the temple precinct, bounded by a moat and wall, may not have been used exclusively by the priestly elite, as was previously thought.
Angkor Wat is a Buddhist temple complex. Located on a site measuring 162.6 ha (1,626,000 m2; 402 acres) within the ancient Khmer capital city of Angkor, it is considered as the largest religious structure in the world by Guinness World Records.
Angkor Wat is a unique combination of the temple mountain (the standard design for the empire's state temples) and the later plan of concentric galleries, most of which were originally derived from religious beliefs of Hinduism. Angkor Wat also served a practical purpose for the Khmer Empire as well, with its dam and resulting moats serving as both connections to the Angkor water network and a means of storing water between the monsoon and dry seasons of the region. The construction of Angkor Wat suggests that there was a celestial significance with certain features of the temple. This is observed in the temple's east–west orientation, and lines of sight from terraces within the temple that show specific towers to be at the precise location of the solstice at sunrise. The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns with the morning sun of the spring equinox. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods according to Hindu mythology: the central quincunx of towers symbolise the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat symbolise the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level.
Text from the Wikipedia article “Angkor Wat”, available under CC BY-SA 4.0.