The al-Ahwaz theater was one of two major areas of operations during the Zanj Rebellion, the other being the regions of lower and central Iraq. Beginning in 869, Zanj armies repeatedly entered the province of al-Ahwaz (modern Khuzestan province, Iran) and succeeded in scoring several victories against the defending forces of the Abbasid Caliphate. Over the course of the next decade, the rebels attacked and looted many of the cities in the region, including Suq al-Ahwaz (the provincial capital), 'Askar Mukram and Ramhurmuz. By the height of the rebellion in the mid-870s the Zanj were effectively in control of extensive portions of the province, appointing governors to the districts under their sway and collecting supplies from the local population. During this period, the Zanj in al-Ahwaz were usually commanded by Ali ibn Aban al-Muhallabi, a primary lieutenant of the overall Zanj leader Ali ibn Muhammad.
In an effort to contain the Zanj, the Abbasid government in Samarra dispatched several commanders to the province to fight against the rebels. The caliphal armies were at times able to defeat the Zanj in battle, but they were unsuccessful in dislodging them from the province and frequently suffered severe losses themselves. The Abbasid war effort was further complicated after the Saffarid amir Ya'qub ibn al-Layth arrived in al-Ahwaz in 875 and attempted to assert his own authority over the region, at the expense of both the Zanj and the Abbasids.
The Zanj presence in al-Ahwaz came to a sudden end in 881, when Ali ibn Aban was ordered to abandon the region and return to lower Iraq, where the remaining military events of the rebellion would take place.
Initial operations
The Zanj Rebellion began in early September 869, in the region of southern Iraq. The leader of the revolt was one Ali ibn Muhammad, who had previously led two failed movements against the Abbasid government in 863 and 868. 'Ali was able to quickly gather a major following, especially among the black slaves who had been employed to cultivate the lands in the area of the modern Shatt al-Arab. The rebels soon spread out through the districts around the city of Basra, and began taking control of the villages in the region.
Due to their proximity to Basra, some of the border districts of al-Ahwaz were entered by the Zanj in the initial months of the revolt. The rebels' movements in the province at this stage, however, were restricted to the lands around the southern Dujayl River (the modern Karun). The Zanj secured peace agreements with some of the villages in the area; other settlements, however, resisted the rebels and were attacked as a result.
First occupation of Suq al-Ahwaz
For almost a year following the outbreak of the revolt, the rebels had mostly remained confined to the districts in the vicinity of Basra. In mid-870, however, the Zanj succeeded in overrunning al-Ubulla and receiving the submission of 'Abbadan, and the rebels sought to follow up these victories with further attacks. The Zanj leader 'Ali ibn Muhammad decided to expand to the northeast and make al-Ahwaz the target of his next campaign, and an army was ordered to proceed to the province.
The Zanj troops that set out for al-Ahwaz were enthusiastic about their mission, and they were reinforced with slaves and weapons that had been confiscated from 'Abbadan. Their first target was Jubba, to the east of the Dujayl. The residents of the town offered no resistance and fled, allowing the Zanj to enter Jubba and pillage it. From there, they spread through the environs of Jubba, which were laid waste. The rebels then continued marching north, and at last arrived before the city of al-Ahwaz, otherwise known as Suq al-Ahwaz.
News of the Zanj approach was met with great trepidation in the city. The military governor of al-Ahwaz at the time was Sa'id ibn Yaksin, who had a contingent of troops at his disposal. Sa'id, however, decided to withdraw from the city, taking his soldiers with him, and the residents of al-Ahwaz also fled. Consequently, when the Zanj army reached Suq al-Ahwaz they were able to enter and occupy the city, with almost no one offering resistance. The fiscal governor Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn al-Mudabbir, who had remained in Suq al-Ahwaz with his pages and servants, was captured by the rebels, and his money, furnishings and slaves were seized.
The Zanj occupation of Suq al-Ahwaz lasted only temporarily, and by the following year the Abbasids reestablished their military presence in the region. The occupation, however, succeeded in opening a new front in the war against the government. The Zanj would occupy Suq al-Ahwaz twice more, in 873 and again in 875, and after the latter occasion they would retain a hold over the city for several years. The capture of al-Ahwaz, together with that of al-Ubulla less than two months prior, also helped spread to fear among the residents of the surrounding regions; many people of Basra, for example, fled their city for safer areas after learning of the Zanj's victory.
Arrival of Ibrahim ibn Sima
In 871, the Zanj leader sent Ali ibn Aban to al-Ahwaz, ordering him to occupy the province and destroy a bridge spanning the Dujayl. Upon reaching the bridge, however, his troops were met by Ibrahim ibn Sima al-Turki, a government commander who had been returning to Iraq from Fars. Ibrahim attacked the rebels from several sides, killing a large number of them and forcing 'Ali to flee. Pursued by Ibrahim's cavalry, 'Ali attempted to reach Suq al-Ahwaz, but a foot wound hindered his movements and he eventually decided to retreat back to Jubba instead.
As a result of his victory, Ibrahim was appointed to conduct the war against the Zanj in al-Ahwaz, and Sa'id ibn Yaksin was dismissed from his post. Ibrahim decided to pursue 'Ali and divided his forces into two, sending one contingent under his secretary Shahin and retaining the other for himself. Informed of their movements, 'Ali met Shahin's force and defeated it, killing Shahin and a large number of his men. He then immediately advanced against Ibrahim, reaching the latter's camp that same evening before the news of Shahin's defeat had reached him. Despite having far fewer troops, 'Ali fell upon Ibrahim's men and successfully routed them, forcing Ibrahim to withdraw in turn.
After the battles against Shahin and Ibrahim, 'Ali remained encamped in Jubba until he was recalled by the Zanj leader in order to take part in the Zanj attack on Basra.
Killing of Mansur ibn Ja'far
After the successful capture of Basra in September 871, Ali ibn Aban was again dispatched to Jubba to fight against Mansur ibn Ja'far al-Khayyat, the military administrator of Basra and the Tigris districts. To reinforce 'Ali, the Zanj leader sent twelve barges laden with troops under the command of Abu al-Layth al-Isbahani, with orders to follow 'Ali's commands. Abu al-Layth, however, decided to attack Mansur on his own and went out to meet him without consulting 'Ali. In the resulting battle, Mansur defeated Abu al-Layth, killing many of his men and capturing his barges.
After learning of Abu al-Layth's defeat, 'Ali also withdrew back to his camp, where he remained for about a month. He then set out to fight Mansur again, and sent scouts to gather information about him. Upon learning of a contingent led by one of Mansur's officers, 'Ali launched a night attack against it, killing the commander and most of his men and looting their camp. News of this raid reached Mansur, who decided to set forth himself, and 'Ali came out to meet him as well. The resulting battle ended in complete victory for 'Ali; Mansur's troops suffered significant casualties and eventually fled, abandoning him on the battlefield. Mansur himself attempted to flee, but was pursued by a Zanj soldier and killed while attempting to cross a canal.
Following Mansur's death, Asghajun was appointed by the government to replace him. 'Ali remained in Jubba for a time, until a dispatch from the Zanj leader reached him to hasten back to Iraq, where Abu Ahmad ibn al-Mutawakkil (the future caliphal regent al-Muwaffaq) had arrived with a large army to attack the chief Zanj "city" of al-Mukhtarah.
Second occupation of Suq al-Ahwaz, Ibn Muflih
In 873, following the withdrawal of Abu Ahmad from southern Iraq, the Zanj leader ordered Ali ibn Aban to return to al-Ahwaz with most of his troops. Upon learning of the rebels' advance, Asghajun advanced from Suq al-Ahwaz against 'Ali with his own forces, and the two sides met in a desert. The battle went badly for the government army; Asghajun and many of his men were killed and others were taken prisoner. The Zanj then made their way to Suq al-Ahwaz and entered it on May 8, upon which they began pillaging and killed a number of its inhabitants.
News of the fate of Suq al-Ahwaz reached the central government in Samarra, which responded by placing the general Musa ibn Bugha al-Kabir in charge of war against the Zanj. Musa sent 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Muflih to al-Ahwaz to engage 'Ali. In his first encounter against the rebels, Ibn Muflih was defeated, but after regrouping his forces, he launched a second attack and inflicted a severe defeat upon the Zanj. Many of 'Ali's men were killed or captured, while 'Ali himself escaped with a few of his followers and fled to southern Iraq.
After spending some time recovering in al-Mukhtarah, 'Ali was again sent out against Ibn Muflih, who had made camp at Hisn al-Mahdi on the Dujayl. He was engaged, however, by Ibrahim ibn Sima, who was then encamped at al-Badhaward, and was defeated twice by him. For his part, Ibn Muflih received word of 'Ali's movements and dispatched his lieutenant Tashtimur against him. Tashimur found that 'Ali had retreated into an area of dense thickets and reeds, so to force him out he ordered his troops to set fire to the vegetation. 'Ali was able to escape, but several of his men were captured by Tashtimur, who sent word of his victory to Ibn Muflih.
Following his defeat, 'Ali made his way to the Nahr al-Sidrah, in the area of the Dujayl south of Suq al-Ahwaz, where he wrote to the Zanj leader asking for reinforcements. Thirteen barges with several contingents of Zanj soldiers were sent to him, upon which 'Ali decided to advance again against Ibn Muflih. The two armies met, but refrained from fighting for a day. That night, 'Ali took several of his most trusted troops and made his way to the rear of Ibn Muflih's camp, where he launched a surprise attack. The government army was defeated and Ibn Muflih retreated, abandoning four of his barges in the process.
Ibn Muflih proceeded to al-Dawlab near Suq al-Ahwaz, where he reestablished his camp. Once he had recovered from his defeat, he sent Tashtimur to engage 'Ali, who was defeated and forced to retreat to the Nahr al-Sidrah. Ibn Muflih then set out with the rest of his forces, and succeeded in inflicting a major defeat on 'Ali, who lost ten of his barges during the battle. 'Ali was forced to retreat back to Iraq, and Ibn Muflih himself proceeded to Bayan.
Abu al-Saj and the third occupation of Suq al-Ahwaz
Ibn Muflih and Tashtimur were both killed in early 875 by Muhammad ibn Wasil, the rebel governor of Fars; at the same time, Musa ibn Bugha decided to resign his command of the operations against the Zanj and returned to Samarra. In response, the central government appointed Abu al-Saj as military governor of al-Ahwaz and tasked him with defeating the rebels there.
Shortly after Abu al-Saj's arrival, Ali ibn Aban advanced into al-Ahwaz and proceeded to the Nahr al-Sidrah. There he fought against a government army and defeated it, killing its commander, a relative of Abu al-Saj's. The latter decided to withdraw to 'Askar Mukram, allowing the Zanj to advance to Suq al-Ahwaz. Upon entering the city, they proceeded to begin killing and capturing its residents, and pillaged and burned their homes.
Following the sack of Suq al-Ahwaz, Abu al-Saj was dismissed from his post and was temporarily replaced with Ibrahim ibn Sima. Later that year, Masrur al-Balkhi was given overall command of the war against the rebels.
Ya'qub ibn al-Layth, Muhammad ibn 'Ubaydallah and Ahmad ibn Laythawayh
A new development in the war emerged in late 875 when the Saffarid amir Ya'qub ibn al-Layth arrived in Ramhurmuz. Ya'qub had spent the last several years becoming one of the most powerful rulers in the Islamic east, having conquered the provinces of Sijistan, Kirman, Khurasan and Fars. He furthermore sought to expand into the core regions of the Abbasid Caliphate, a policy that would culminate in early 876 with the Battle of Dayr al-Aqul in central Iraq. Although the battle ended in defeat for Ya'qub and forced him out of Iraq, he still sought to maintain his authority in al-Ahwaz, at the expense of both the Abbasid government and the Zanj.
Ya'qub appointed Muhammad ibn Ubaydallah al-Kurdi as governor of the districts of al-Ahwaz. Muhammad, however, soon entered into correspondence with the Zanj leader and offered to defect to the rebels' side. The Zanj leader agreed to the offer, on the condition that Muhammad submit to Ali ibn Aban as the latter's deputy.
With Muhammad now on his side, 'Ali decided to send an expedition under his brother al-Khalil to al-Sus, where Ahmad ibn Laythawayh, who had been appointed by Masrur al-Balkhi as the military governor of al-Ahwaz, was staying. Al-Khalil and Muhammad joined forces and headed toward the city, but Ibn Laythawayh intercepted them before they arrived and launched an attack. Many of the rebels were killed or captured, and the rest soon withdrew. Ibn Laythawayh then proceeded to Junday Sabur and established himself there.