In the period after the First Crusade from 1099–1146, the Kingdom of Jerusalem was established and, with the other Crusader states, grew to be a major force in the Holy Land. Despite being surrounded by hostile Muslim forces, the kingdom gradually conquered all but one of the major Mediterranean coastal cities and much of the interior lands. Godfrey of Bouillon and Baldwin I of Jerusalem, the first rulers of the kingdom, quelled the Fatimid Egyptian threat and reached a stalemate with the Seljuk's of northern Syria. The uniting of the major Syrian cities of Aleppo, Damascus and Mosul under the warlord Zengi led to the loss of Edessa and the coming of the Second Crusade.
Beginnings
On 15 July 1099, Jerusalem was claimed for Christianity, reaching the major goal of the First Crusade. The originator of the crusade, Urban II, died on 29 July, not knowing that his venture had been successful. He was succeeded by Pascal II who would serve 20 years.
Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri
Following the return of the Holy City to Christianity, the nobles and clergy set about to determine the governance of the city. On 22 July 1099, a council was held to establish a ruler for Jerusalem. The clergy wanted an ecclesiastical solution, but there was no obvious canditate and so a secular solution was sought. Raymond of Saint-Gilles and Godfrey of Bouillon were recognized as the leaders of the First Crusade most suited to lead what was to become the kingdom.
The account of Raymond of Aguilers in his Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iherusalem states:
[A]fter six or seven days the princes solemnly began to consider the matter of choosing a ruler, who, assuming charge of all matters. While this was taking place, some of the clergy assembled and said to the princes, "We approve your election, but if you proceed rightly and properly, you will first choose a spiritual vicar, as eternal matters come before temporal; after this, a ruler to preside over secular matters. Otherwise, we shall hold invalid whatever you do." The princes were exceedingly angered when they heard this and proceeded the more quickly with the election. The clergy had been weakened by the departure of Lord Adhemar, Pontiff of Puy, who, in his life had held our army together with holy deeds and words. The princes urged the Count of St. Gilles to accept the kingdom. But he said that he abhorred the name of king in that city, though he would consent to have others accept it. For this reason they together chose the Duke [Godfrey of Bouillon] and placed him in charge of the Sepulchre of the Lord.
Raymond was the more likely candidate of the two, but his reputation had been tarnished after his failed Siege of Arqa. Nevertheless, he refused to become king, possibly hoping that the other nobles would insist upon his election. Godfrey, a descendant of Charlemagne, did not hesitate and he accepted the position as ruler of the Holy City. He took the title Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri (defender of the Holy Sepulchre) although there are indicators that he used the more ambiguous term princeps, or simply retained his title of dux from Lower Lorraine. Raymond was incensed and took his army to forage away from the city. He was reluctant to give up the Tower of David, but eventually was forced to by Godfrey.
Latin patriarchy and the sacred relic
There remained the issue of the clergy leadership. The obvious choice had been Simeon II of Jerusalem, in exile at Cyprus, but he had died a few days earlier. On 1 August 1099, Arnulf of Chocques was elected as the first Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem despite his relative low standing in the church hierarchy. With him throughout the crusade, Arnulf's loyalty lay with Godfrey and he would not pressure him in matters of governance.
On 5 August 1099, Arnulf discovered the relic of the True Cross. First found by Saint Helena in the fourth century, it had changed hands many times over the centuries. Since the 1009 destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, ordered by Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah in 1009, the relic was hidden by the Greek Orthodox priests of the city. Even with the return of Jerusalem to Christian hands, the protectors of the cross were reluctant to part with it. Arnulf forced them to reveal its location and it became the most sacred relic of the kingdom. The patriarch or the king would carry the True Cross with them when in battle with the Muslims.
Princes of Outremer
While most of the Crusaders would return home at the end of the First Crusade, three leaders would stay and shape the future of the kingdom and Outremer. They are Bohemond of Taranto, his nephew Tancred of Galilee, and Godfrey's brother Baldwin of Boulogne.
The animosity between Bohemond of Taranto and Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos dated back to the 1080s when they opposed each other in the Byzantine-Norman wars. Nevertheless, when he joined the First Crusade, Bohemond to an oath of homage to the emperor as was required by all Crusaders. It was understood that Byzantine lands that were recovered would revert to the empire. Bohemond was a key leader in the Siege of Antioch of 1097–1098 and wanted control of the city after its submission. Raymond of Saint-Gilles opposed giving the city to Bohemond instead supporting Alexios' claim. Bohemond would not yield given that the emperor did not come to the aid of the Crusaders during the siege. He prevailed and become the first ruler of the Principality of Antioch.
Bohemond's nephew Tancred initially refused to take an oath to the emperor, but relented after the 1097 Siege of Nicaea. Afterwards, his contingent split off from the main force and conquered several cities in Armenian Cilicia before rejoining Godfrey and Raymond at Antioch and later Jerusalem. He joined with Baldwin of Bourcq, cousin of Baldwin of Boulogne, in taking Bethlehem and, with the acquisition of Tiberias, formed the Principality of Galilee. This area had been contested by Egypt and Damascus, and so was a vital area to control.
When Tancred left the main body of Crusaders, he was accompanied by Baldwin of Boulogne. Tancred tried to capture Tartus, but was prevented by Baldwin, giving rise to a lifelong rivalry. Baldwin was invited by the local warlord Thoros of Edessa to come to Edessa to help fight the Seljuks. After much intrigue, he created the first Crusader state, the County of Edessa, on 10 March 1098. He solidified his rule by marrying a local woman Arda of Armenia, the daughter of an Armenian ruler. Baldwin played an important role in supporting the main Crusader force by engaging Kerbogha at Edessa, delaying his attack on Antioch in 1098.
Threats to the kingdom
The kingdom was surrounded by hostile Muslim countries from the beginning. Furthermore, the Egyptian navy was powerful, controlling the Mediterranean coastline. The caliphates, sultanates and dynasties in the Levant were most times enemies of Jerusalem, but, at times, allied with the Franks. The Seljuk Turks in Syria fought frequently among themselves, giving advantage to the Franks.
The Islamic military order of the Assassins was not a threat to the Franks in this time period, but rather attacked other Muslim rulers. Founded in 1090 by the Arab religious scholar Hassan-i Sabbah, they occasionally allied with Christian leaders and did not list them among their victims until 1191.
Fatimid caliphate of Egypt
The Fatimid caliphate had ruled Egypt and surrounding areas since the year 909. Beginning in 1094, the caliph was al-Musta'li, supported by his vizier al-Afdal Shahanshah. In August 1098, al-Afdal captured Jerusalem from the Seljuk Turks only to lose it to the Crusaders the next year.
The Fatimids were a constant threat to the kingdom from the beginning, covering its southern reaches. Following the loss of Jerusalem, al-Afdal launched the Battle of Ascalon in an attempt to drive the Franks from the region. While defeated, the Muslim garrison at Ascalon would only surrender to Raymond of Saint-Gilles, which was unacceptable to Godfrey. Ascalon would remain in Muslim hands until the Frankish success in 1153 in the Siege of Ascalon.
Al-Afdal would be felled by an Assassin's blade in December 1121 and the caliphate was no longer a significant threat to the Frankish settlements. The Fatimids would fall to Saladin in 1171, giving rise to the Ayyubid sultanate.
Seljuk empire
The Seljuk empire was founded by the Oghuz Turk warlord Seljuk Beg in the early eleventh century played an important part in the history of the Crusades. It was his great-grandson was Alp Arslan who defeated the Byzantines at the seminal Battle of Manzikert in 1071. His son and successor was Malik-Shah I who conquered much of Syria, including Aleppo, Antioch and Edessa. Malik-Shah's brother was Tutush I who ruled Damascus. The rivalry between the brothers caused the first rift in the Seljuk dynasty.
Malik-Shah ruled from 15 December 1072 through 19 November 1092. His vizier was Nizam al-Mulk who also supported his father and grandfather. Their deaths in 1092 led to civil war with Tutush contesting the succession of Malik-Shah's son Berkyaruq. Tutush was killed in battle in 1095 and his head displayed in Baghdad. Berkyaruq was succeeded by his half-brother Muhammad I Tapar.
Tutush ruled Damascus and was sultan of Aleppo from 1094. He was succeeded in Aleppo by his son Ridwan and in Damascus by his younger son Duqaq. Following Duqaq's death in 1104, Damascus was ruled first by Toghtekin and then his son Taj al-Muluk Buri, founders of the Burid dynasty. Aleppo was ruled by Ridwan's son Alp Arslan al-Akhras after his death in 1113, but the real power rested in the hands of al-Akhras' atabeg Lu'lu' al-Yaya.
The Seljuks lived in harmony with the Abbasid caliphate. The caliphs, based in Baghdad, were the spiritual figureheads with the Seljuks providing the military might beginning in 1055.
Sultanate of Rum
The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum seceded from the Seljuk empire in 1077 and was led by Suleiman ibn Qutalmish. His father Qutalmish had struggled with his cousin Alp Arslan for the throne but was defeated at the Battle of Damghan in 1063. The sultanate was recoginized as a vassal state to the Seljuks by Malik-Shah in 1084 and worked closely with the emperor Alexios I Komnenos in their attempts to reconquer Antioch. Suleiman's son Kilij Arslan I succeeded him in 1092.
Kilij Arslan was the key antagonist against the Franks during the First Crusade and Crusade of 1101. After his death in 1107, the sultanate concentrated on battling its Muslim rivals and was taken the Mongols in 1243.
Artuqid dynasty
The Artuqid dynasty was formed by Artuk Bey, a Turkish general first under Malik-Shah and then Tutush. It was a principality of the Seljuk empire. Artuk was appointed governor of Jerusalem by Tutush in 1085. Upon his death in 1091, Artuk's sons Sökmen and Ilghazi assumed the governance of the Holy City and ruled until 1098 when they were expelled by al-Afdal. Ilghazi was emir of Aleppo beginning in 1117 and Sökmen ruled the region around Hasankeyf. The Artuqids became a vassal of the Zengids after 1146.
Danishmends
The Danishmendid beylik was founded in 1071 by Danishmend Gazi, an Armenian who was rumored to be related to Malik-Shah. Formed after the Battle of Manzikert, Gazi took advantage of the death of Suleiman ibn Qutalmish to carve out his domain of interest. He died in 1085 and was succeeded by his son Gazi Gümüshtigin. Gazi died in 1104 and was succeeded by his son Emir Gazi. The dynasty remained active until 1179.
Establishment of the early kingdom
After Ascalon, Raymond of Saint-Gilles, Robert Curthose and Robert II of Flanders left Jerusalem with their armies to return home, going north through Antioch. This left the kingdom virtually defenseless, only some 300 knights and 2000 infantry, with still much of Palestine to conquer.
Diambert of Pisa
Daimbert was archbishop of Pisa and papal legate to the First Crusade. At the end of 1098, he traveled east with a Pisan fleet of 120 ships, conducting raids on Byzantine islands before going on to Syria. In August 1099, Bohemond began besieging the Byzantine port of Latakia, and Diambert and the Pisans agreed to blockade the port by sea. Raymond and the two Roberts saw the necessity for cooperation with the emperor and persuaded Daimbert to call off the blockade. Bohemond abandoned his siege and accompanied the legate and Baldwin of Boulogne to Jerusalem, arriving on 21 December 1099.