The abdications of Bayonne took place on May 5, 6, and 7 of 1808 in the castle of Marracq in Bayonne when the French emperor Napoleon I forced two Spanish kings—Charles IV and his son, Ferdinand VII—to renounce the throne in his favour. The move was Napoleon's response to the Tumult of Aranjuez (17–19 March), when Ferdinand VII forced his father's first abdication, and the uprising of 2 May against French troops in Spain (present in accordance with the Treaty of Fontainebleau). Napoleon in his turn handed the crown of Spain to his brother Joseph Bonaparte.The result of the abdications was further resistance to the French presence, resulting in the Peninsular War (1808–1814), a contributing factor to Napoleon's final defeat. Napoleon was eventually forced to release Ferdinand. On 11 December 1813, he reinstalled him as King of Spain (Treaty of Valençay).
The abdications were widely regarded as coerced. However, some historians have noted that neither Charles IV nor Ferdinand VII were adequately equipped to resist Napoleon's pressures and threats. Some authors have claimed they were "kidnapped" by Napoleon, though others avoid using this term to describe the events in Bayonne.
The abdications were not recognized in Spain or Spanish America by the "patriots". According to François-Xavier Guerra, the rejection of the new king Joseph I and loyalty to the captive Ferdinand VII were "widespread across all parts of the monarchy". However, some Spaniards, particularly among the enlightened elite, supported Joseph I, initially being called "traitors" or "sworn ones", and later "josefinos" or, pejoratively, "afrancesados". Spanish "patriots" referred to Joseph I as the "intruder king". Days after Joseph I hurriedly left Madrid on July 31 due to the French defeat at the Battle of Bailén, the Council of Castile declared the Bayonne abdications null. On August 24, Ferdinand VII was proclaimed king in absentia. Subsequently, on January 14, 1809, the United Kingdom, the main enemy of the First French Empire, recognized Ferdinand VII as King of Spain in the Treaty of Apodaca-Canning. With the direct intervention of the Grande Armée led personally by Napoleon, Joseph I regained the throne, which he held until June 1813. As some Spaniards supported him, the Spanish War of Independence also had elements of a civil war.
Background: Napoleon's Intervention in Spain
The moment when Napoleon decided to openly intervene in the monarchy of Charles IV, an ally of the French Republic since the treaty of Basel in 1795, has been a subject of debate. Miguel Artola places it after the Escorial conspiracy uncovered on October 27, 1807—an unsuccessful attempt by the Prince of Asturias, Ferdinand, to end the government of the "favorite" Manuel Godoy and likely force his father to abdicate the Crown of Spain. This demonstrated to the Emperor the instability of his southern ally, whose foreign policy he had been influencing since 1801. French historian Thierry Lentz concurs: "It was probably around this time that the definitive decision to intervene in Spain, not merely to choose between Charles and Ferdinand, took shape." The French ambassador François de Beauharnais, implicated in the conspiracy, may have also influenced the decision, writing to the Emperor: "It is solely from Your Imperial Majesty that the Spanish nation expects its salvation, and it can be assured that throughout the kingdom, there are only ardent friends of France."
During his captivity on the island of Saint Helena, Napoleon wrote: "We could not leave Spain at our backs, at the disposal of our enemies. It was necessary to bind it, willingly or by force, to our system." He also noted: "The Spanish nation despised its government; it cried out for the good of regeneration. I could hope to achieve it without shedding blood; the dissensions of the royal family had stained it with general contempt." Thierry Lentz has pointed out that the decision to intervene in Spanish politics was also influenced by "a sense of superiority toward a kingdom that was taken little seriously... This tragicomic Spain was summarized, in French minds, as a country characterized by religious obscurantism, the vanity of the nobility, the poverty, and the ignorance of the people... The worst part is that these sentiments could be found word for word in the numerous reports reaching the Emperor’s desk."
Artola has noted that at that time, Napoleon did not initially plan to replace the Bourbons but rather to annex the Spanish "provinces" north of the Ebro River, shifting the Franco-Spanish border to this river, as in the times of the Carolingian Empire. This plan would be completed by marrying Prince Ferdinand to a princess from his family, though this did not materialize due to Lucien Bonaparte’s refusal to consent to his eldest daughter Charlotte being chosen. To execute his plan to dismember Spain, Napoleon seized the opportunity provided by the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807), signed on the same day the Escorial Conspiracy was uncovered, which allowed a French army to cross Spain to conquer the Kingdom of Portugal. Although Marshal Junot had already entered Lisbon on November 30, between December 22, 1807, and February 6, 1808, three new army corps led by Marshals Dupont, Moncey, and Duhesme crossed the Franco-Spanish border. On February 20, Marshal Joachim Murat was appointed lieutenant general of the French troops in Spain (between 80,000 and 100,000 men).
Meanwhile, Napoleon sought to stay well-informed about events in Spain. An aide sent to Spain reported back on December 20: "Spain, in its misfortunes, looks to His Imperial Majesty [Napoleon I] as the only one who can save it; it is expected that he will deign to take the Prince of Asturias under his protection, choose him a wife, and free Spain from the tyranny that oppresses it... You cannot imagine the ruin in which Spain finds itself." In a document sent to Charles IV in late February 1808, titled Especies y cuestiones proponibles, Napoleon, in Artola’s words, "revealed his hand", proposing to exchange Portugal for Spain’s border provinces with France. To seal the agreement, he suggested reestablishing "a pact equivalent to the pacte de famille and even more perfect."
The "chaos", as Artola describes it, caused by the events known as the tumult of Aranjuez—the ousting of Godoy and Charles IV’s abdication in favor of his heir, Ferdinand— ultimately prompted Napoleon to replace the Bourbons with a member of his family. "The annexation of part of the kingdom no longer made sense, as the Emperor could not trust Ferdinand after his reprehensible maneuvers to dethrone his father and the cruelty shown toward Godoy. The only option was to dispense with the House of Bourbon and apply the system used elsewhere, that is, to place a member of Napoleon’s family on the throne," stated Emilio La Parra López.
It appears that his minister Talleyrand was the first to advise this course of action. In a memorandum to Napoleon, he wrote: "There is only one branch of the House of Bourbon on the throne, that of Spain, which, positioned at our backs when facing the German powers, will always be threatening... The time has come to declare that the last House of Bourbon has ceased to reign... A prince of the imperial house occupying the Spanish throne would complete the Empire’s system... For all this, an army of 30,000 men would suffice." After the Mutiny of Aranjuez, Minister Jean-Baptiste Nompère de Champagny, with Napoleon’s input, presented a detailed report concluding: "I have outlined to Your Majesty the circumstances that compel a significant decision. Policy advises it, justice authorizes it, and Spain’s disturbances necessitate it. Your Majesty must, therefore, ensure the security of your Empire and save Spain from English influence."
Ferdinand VII’s trip to Bayonne
Upon ascending the throne, Ferdinand VII sent the Duke of Parque to pay respects to Marshal Joachim Murat, lieutenant general of the French troops in Spain. However, neither Murat nor the French ambassador François de Beauharnais reciprocated when Ferdinand VII made his triumphal entry into Madrid on March 24, nor did Napoleon send any note. French military and civil authorities did not address him as "Majesty" but as "His Royal Highness," the same title used when he was Prince of Asturias, which, according to Emilio La Parra López, "was very revealing of France’s attitude" and "highly concerning for him, aware that maintaining his crown depended on the French Emperor’s recognition. Obtaining it became his obsession." On March 26, Ferdinand wrote to the French ambassador: "My intentions are the happiness of seeing His Imperial and Royal Majesty [Napoleon] and following his advice." A week later, on April 2, the Council of Castile issued a proclamation reiterating that the French were in Spain "to execute plans agreed with His Majesty against the common enemy" [England] and announced that anyone disturbing "this friendly and reciprocal correspondence" with "the slightest excess" would be punished. Meanwhile, Ferdinand’s propaganda claimed the imperial army had entered Spain to protect the new king from the schemes of the "Godoyists". However, by then, Napoleon had already decided to replace the Bourbons with a family member, though he had not disclosed this even to his closest collaborators or his lieutenant in Spain, Marshal Murat.
On April 3, Ferdinand VII informed Murat that he would travel to meet Napoleon, who the previous day had been announced to soon arrive in Spain. "Meeting Napoleon in person was vital for Ferdinand, as he urgently needed his recognition and to counter unfavorable reports reaching the Emperor and prevent potential moves by Charles IV. Ferdinand’s circle knew—or at least suspected—that Charles IV had protested his abdication." Indeed, just two days after his abdication on March 19, Charles IV had given General Monthion, sent by Murat to Aranjuez, a note stating he was forced to renounce the Crown "to avoid greater evils and the shedding of my dear vassals’ blood." On March 27, he wrote to Napoleon requesting his protection, explaining that he had abdicated "under the force of circumstances, when the noise of arms and the clamor of a mutinous guard made it clear that I had to choose between life and death, which would have been followed by that of the Queen." Historian Emilio La Parra López comments: "In the language of the Old Regime, the former king was effectively describing the events as a coup d’état." The letter to Napoleon read:
My Lord and Brother: Your Majesty will undoubtedly have heard with sorrow of the events in Aranjuez and their consequences, and will not look with indifference upon a king who, forced to renounce the crown, seeks refuge in the arms of a great monarch, his ally, fully submitting to the decisions of the only one who can grant him happiness, that of his entire family, and that of his loyal vassals.I did not renounce in favor of my son except under the force of circumstances, when the clamor of arms and the shouts of a rebellious guard made it clear that I had to choose between life and death...I was forced to renounce; but I have resolved to comply with all that Your Majesty may decide regarding us and the fate of the Queen and the Prince of Peace [Manuel Godoy].
On April 4, the Infante Carlos María Isidro de Borbón departed Madrid, accompanied by three Grandees of Spain—the Dukes of Frías, Medinaceli, and the Count of Fernán Núñez—to prepare for the meeting with the Emperor. By April 8, they had reached Tolosa, after passing through Valladolid, Burgos, and Vitoria, without any news of Napoleon’s whereabouts. It was only known that he had left Paris for Bayonne on April 2. On April 7, Napoleon’s special envoy, General Anne Jean Marie René Savary, arrived in Madrid, informing Ferdinand VII that the Emperor had placed his father Charles IV under his protection and that a meeting was urgently necessary. Napoleon’s mission for Savary was to gain Ferdinand VII’s trust—hence using the title "Majesty" during their meeting—and escort him to Bayonne.
On April 10, Ferdinand VII left Madrid, expecting to meet Napoleon in Burgos. He had appointed a Supreme Junta of Government, presided over by his uncle, Infante Antonio Pascual de Borbón. He was accompanied by a large entourage led by three members of his private cabinet—Escoiquiz, the Dukes of Infantado, and San Carlos—and one government member, the Secretary of State Pedro Cevallos. They were escorted by French troops under General Savary’s command. On April 12, the entourage arrived in Burgos, where the king was triumphantly welcomed by crowds, as had happened elsewhere along the route, but Napoleon was not there as expected. They continued to Vitoria the next day, where the Emperor was also absent. A former minister of Charles IV, Mariano Luis de Urquijo, who had traveled from Bilbao, warned Ferdinand VII that, based on French press reports, Napoleon planned to end the Bourbon dynasty. The king and his advisors hesitated, but Savary’s assurances—and threats to unleash hostilities if they did not proceed to Bayonne—convinced them to continue. Upon returning to Bilbao, Urquijo wrote: "They are all blind and heading toward inevitable ruin." Others also tried unsuccessfully to dissuade them. The Junta of Government in Madrid sent a report to the king, complaining that French troops were "exhausting all the revenues and resources of our impoverished treasury, causing unbearable harassment and vexations to the people" and expressing the "Nation’s" desire, which the government had so far restrained, "to preserve its independence from any foreign authority".