In 2025 and 2026, Iran and the United States began a series of negotiations aimed at reaching a nuclear peace agreement, following a letter from US president Donald Trump to Iranian supreme leader Ali Khamenei, setting a 60-day deadline for Iran to reach an agreement. After the deadline passed without an agreement in June 2025, Israel launched airstrikes against Iran, starting the Twelve-Day War. As of June 28, 2026, there were three rounds of talks before the Islamabad talks that led to the Islamabad Memorandum, and two rounds of technical talks.
The first round was held in Oman on April 12, 2025, led by US special envoy Steve Witkoff and Iranian foreign minister Abbas Araghchi. A second round of Omani-mediated talks took place in Rome on April 19, 2025, again between Witkoff and Araghchi. This was followed by a third round in Muscat around a week later; an expert-level meeting to develop a framework for a possible nuclear agreement was led by Michael Anton for the US and by Majid Takht-Ravanchi for Iran.
The US military had been building up its presence in the Middle East as the threat of war escalated. US bases throughout the region accommodate approximately 50,000 American troops. As part of the peace proposals, Iran proposed building at least 19 additional reactors, suggesting that American involvement in these projects could help revitalize the US nuclear industry. A planned address by Araghchi to formally announce this proposal was ultimately cancelled.
On May 27, Trump said both sides were close to finalizing an agreement involving strong inspections. Araghchi stated he was unsure whether a deal was imminent, while Khamenei's advisor, Ali Shamkhani, dismissed Trump's desired control over the Iranian nuclear program as a "fantasy". Israel reportedly threatened to preemptively attack Iranian nuclear installations, although this was denied by Benjamin Netanyahu. On May 31, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) reported that Iran had amassed a record amount of military-grade enriched uranium. On June 11, US embassies in Iraq and other Arab states began to evacuate personnel in response to Iranian threats on American bases. The Houthis threatened retaliation against the United States should an attack be launched on Iran. President Trump was reportedly provided with a range of options for an attack on Iran by CENTCOM. The UK issued a threat advisory for ships in the Persian Gulf. On June 12, the IAEA declared Iran in breach of its non-proliferation obligations.
On June 13, Israel launched large-scale attacks targeting Iran's military leadership and nuclear scientists. Consequently, Iran withdrew and suspended nuclear talks indefinitely. The United States also carried out a series of strikes on Iranian nuclear sites and negotiations between the United States and Iran were subsequently suspended. Talks resumed in early 2026 after large-scale protests in Iran. Meanwhile, the US military buildup in the Middle East continued.
On February 28, 2026, the United States and Israel launched large-scale strikes on Iran, marking the start of the 2026 Iran war. The attacks included the assassination of Khamenei, as well as the assassination of Ali Larijani, a key figure in the negotiations. On April 7, 2026, Iran and the United States announced a temporary two-week ceasefire.
On May 24, 2026, reports indicated that the United States and Iran were nearing a broader peace agreement following months of conflict and stalled negotiations. US president Donald Trump stated that a memorandum of understanding was close to finalisation and suggested that the Strait of Hormuz could soon reopen under a ceasefire framework.
On June, 17, 2026, Trump and Iranian president Masoud Pezeshkian signed remotely the Islamabad Memorandum to end the war between both countries and Israel, with Trump signing it during dinner with French president Emmanuel Macron at the Palace of Versailles following the G7 summit, after which Pezeshkian signed it in Tehran.
On July 8, the ceasefire agreement between the US and Iran broke after Iran launched attacks on commercial vessels in the Strait of Hormuz to assert Iranian sovereignty over the Strait of Hormuz, startling US officials and shattering a brief diplomatic calm.
In 2025 and 2026, Iran and the United States began a series of negotiations aimed at reaching a nuclear peace agreement, following a letter from US president Donald Trump to Iranian supreme leader Ali Khamenei, setting a 60-day deadline for Iran to reach an agreement. After the deadline passed without an agreement in June 2025, Israel launched airstrikes against Iran, starting the Twelve-Day War. As of June 28, 2026, there were three rounds of talks before the Islamabad talks that led to the Islamabad Memorandum, and two rounds of technical talks.
The first round was held in Oman on April 12, 2025, led by US special envoy Steve Witkoff and Iranian foreign minister Abbas Araghchi. A second round of Omani-mediated talks took place in Rome on April 19, 2025, again between Witkoff and Araghchi. This was followed by a third round in Muscat around a week later; an expert-level meeting to develop a framework for a possible nuclear agreement was led by Michael Anton for the US and by Majid Takht-Ravanchi for Iran.
The US military had been building up its presence in the Middle East as the threat of war escalated. US bases throughout the region accommodate approximately 50,000 American troops. As part of the peace proposals, Iran proposed building at least 19 additional reactors, suggesting that American involvement in these projects could help revitalize the US nuclear industry. A planned address by Araghchi to formally announce this proposal was ultimately cancelled.
On May 27, Trump said both sides were close to finalizing an agreement involving strong inspections. Araghchi stated he was unsure whether a deal was imminent, while Khamenei's advisor, Ali Shamkhani, dismissed Trump's desired control over the Iranian nuclear program as a "fantasy". Israel reportedly threatened to preemptively attack Iranian nuclear installations, although this was denied by Benjamin Netanyahu. On May 31, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) reported that Iran had amassed a record amount of military-grade enriched uranium. On June 11, US embassies in Iraq and other Arab states began to evacuate personnel in response to Iranian threats on American bases. The Houthis threatened retaliation against the United States should an attack be launched on Iran. President Trump was reportedly provided with a range of options for an attack on Iran by CENTCOM. The UK issued a threat advisory for ships in the Persian Gulf. On June 12, the IAEA declared Iran in breach of its non-proliferation obligations.
On June 13, Israel launched large-scale attacks targeting Iran's military leadership and nuclear scientists. Consequently, Iran withdrew and suspended nuclear talks indefinitely. The United States also carried out a series of strikes on Iranian nuclear sites and negotiations between the United States and Iran were subsequently suspended. Talks resumed in early 2026 after large-scale protests in Iran. Meanwhile, the US military buildup in the Middle East continued.
On February 28, 2026, the United States and Israel launched large-scale strikes on Iran, marking the start of the 2026 Iran war. The attacks included the assassination of Khamenei, as well as the assassination of Ali Larijani, a key figure in the negotiations. On April 7, 2026, Iran and the United States announced a temporary two-week ceasefire.
On May 24, 2026, reports indicated that the United States and Iran were nearing a broader peace agreement following months of conflict and stalled negotiations. US president Donald Trump stated that a memorandum of understanding was close to finalisation and suggested that the Strait of Hormuz could soon reopen under a ceasefire framework.
On June 17, 2026, Trump and Iranian president Masoud Pezeshkian signed remotely the Islamabad Memorandum to end the war between both countries and Israel, with Trump signing it during dinner with French president Emmanuel Macron at the Palace of Versailles following the G7 summit, after which Pezeshkian signed it in Tehran.
On July 8, the ceasefire agreement between the US and Iran broke after Iran launched attacks on commercial vessels in the Strait of Hormuz to assert Iranian sovereignty over the Strait of Hormuz, startling US officials and shattering a brief diplomatic calm.
Background
Iran's nuclear program has been a focal point of international scrutiny for decades. Although the country suspended its formal nuclear weapons program in 2003, in December 2024, the UN nuclear watchdog IAEA reported enrichment to levels approaching weapons-grade. It also found an unprecedented stockpile of highly enriched uranium without a credible civilian purpose, giving Iran the capacity to produce enough fissile material for multiple bombs on short notice. The program has received external assistance, including from Pakistan and North Korea, with the latter supplying both missiles and uranium. In January 2025, the exiled opposition group National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI) alleged that Iran is developing long-range missiles under the IRGC, with ranges up to 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi). Iran said its nuclear activities were for peaceful purposes (the creation of nuclear energy). Senior adviser Kamal Kharrazi stated that Iran has the technical capacity to build nuclear weapons but is constrained by a fatwa issued by Ali Khamenei, adding that this stance could change if the country's existence were threatened.
Analysts and researchers say that a nuclear-armed Iran poses significant global security risks and undermines the stability of the Middle East. IAEA chief Rafael Grossi warned that an Iranian nuclear weapon could trigger broad nuclear proliferation, as other countries, particularly in the Middle East, may seek similar capabilities in response. Concerns also exist that Iran's nuclear assets could fall into the hands of extremist factions due to internal instability or regime change. Additionally, Iran's success in acquiring nuclear weapons could encourage other regional powers to seek their own nuclear arsenals. The potential transfer of nuclear technology or weapons to radical states and terrorist organizations heightens fears of nuclear terrorism. Scholars argue that a nuclear-armed Iran could feel emboldened to increase its support for terrorism and insurgency—core elements of its strategy—while deterring retaliation through its newfound nuclear leverage.
Some analysts have argued that a lasting post-war settlement would require reframing Iran's nuclear concessions not as unilateral disarmament but as a compensated transaction. In one proposed framework, Iran would accept full dismantlement of its enriched uranium stockpile and nuclear infrastructure in exchange for a comprehensive economic settlement covering decades of lost investment and sanctions.
In response to Iran's nuclear program, the international community imposed sanctions that severely impacted its economy, restricting its oil exports and limiting access to global financial systems. In 2015, however, the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) was signed, imposing strict limitations on Iran's nuclear program in exchange for sanctions relief. In 2018, the United States withdrew from the agreement, with President Donald Trump stating that "the heart of the Iran deal was a giant fiction: that a murderous regime desired only a peaceful nuclear energy program". The US also contended that the agreement was inadequate because it did not impose limitations on Iran's ballistic missile program, and failed to curb its backing of proxy groups. Prior to the second Trump administration, the Biden administration held talks with Iran that were ultimately unsuccessful.
In February 2025, Trump reinstated the maximum pressure campaign to push Iran into a new nuclear deal, prevent its development of nuclear weapons, and counter its regional influence. He said he would not tolerate an "Iranian nuclear weapons capability", and did not rule out supporting military action if diplomacy failed, with his team stating that "all options are on the table" when it comes to Iran. In April 2025, Atomic Energy Organization of Iran chief Mohammad Eslami declared Iran plans to build more nuclear power plants.
Trump's letter to Khamenei
On March 7, 2025, Trump announced that he had written a letter to Ali Khamenei, expressing his desire to initiate new nuclear negotiations with Iran. He warned that failure to accept the proposal could expose Iran to serious military consequences. Trump also imposed additional sanctions on the country and pledged to reduce Iran's oil exports to zero. According to Emirati political scientist Abdulkhaleq Abdullah, the letter included demands that Iran fully dismantle its nuclear program, halt all enrichment, and end support for regional proxy groups, with compliance required within two months. In exchange, the US offered to lift sanctions and normalize relations, while warning that failure to negotiate would result in military strikes.
Initially, Khamenei did not acknowledge the letter, indicating that Iran would not meet the new expectations. During March 2025, Iran and the US engaged in indirect exchanges over Trump's letter, with both sides issuing threats. Khamenei reportedly changed his mind about the negotiations after his advisors warned that the threat of war with the United States and the deepening economic crisis could bring down the government. By the end of March, the Iranian leadership had sent a reply to the letter expressing readiness for nuclear negotiations.
Participants
2025
Participants of the high-level negotiations:
US – Steve Witkoff, the White House special envoy leading the American side of the negotiations with Iran.
Participants of the expert-level negotiations (starting first during the third round):
US – Michael Anton, the director of Policy Planning, as well as representatives from the Department of State and Department of Treasury.
Iran – Majid Takht-Ravanchi, the deputy foreign minister who previously had been involved in the 2015 nuclear negotiations.
There were no European negotiators. France stated its intention to participate but was not included in the talks.
2026
Second Round Brad Cooper and Jared Kushner and Ali Larijani were added to talks.
Qatar, Egypt, and Turkey joined the mediations effort. Abbas Araghchi contacted the Ministries of Foreign relations of UAE and Pakistan and Oman via phone as well.
The first round was held on April 12, 2025, in Muscat, Oman. The talks were led by US special envoy Steve Witkoff and Iranian foreign Minister Abbas Araghchi; each delegation was in separate rooms, with messages relayed through Omani mediators. The discussions were described as constructive. Afterwards, the leaders of both negotiating teams spoke briefly in person. An Iranian news outlet reported that during the talks in Oman, Iran proposed a three-step plan to reach a deal with the United States:
Iran would agree to temporarily lower its uranium enrichment to 3.67% in return for access to frozen financial assets in the United States and authorization to export its oil.
Iran would permanently halt high-level uranium enrichment, restore inspections by the UN nuclear watchdog IAEA, and commit to implementing the Additional Protocol, allowing for surprise inspections at undeclared sites. These steps would be taken if the United States lifts further sanctions and persuades Britain, Germany, and France not to trigger the snapback of UN sanctions against Tehran.
The US Congress would approve the nuclear agreement and Washington would lift both primary and secondary sanctions, while Iran would transfer its stockpiles of highly enriched uranium to a third country.
Moreover, Iran had reportedly proposed steps to deescalate tensions, including a pledge to disarm and freeze the activities of Hamas, the Houthis, Hezbollah, and Hashd al-Shaabi. US envoy Witkoff reportedly welcomed the proposals presented by the Iranian delegation in Muscat, which were unexpected by the Iranian side. In early April, Iranian military advisor and security council politician Shamkhani warned that Iran would expel IAEA inspectors if threats for foreign aggression persisted. Later that month, IAEA chief Rafael Grossi visited Iran and met Araghchi. Grossi said they were "in a very crucial stage of these important negotiations" and that he worked to facilitate the process.
2nd round
The second round of Omani-mediated talks in Rome occurred on April 19, 2025, one week after the initial meeting in Muscat, the capital of Oman in four hours. Once again, the indirect discussions were led by Araghchi and Witkoff, with messages conveyed through Omani foreign minister Badr al-Busaidi. Afterwards, US president Trump said that he was open to meeting Iran's Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei. Following the second round of talks, the Israeli Air Force reportedly conducted drills simulating an Iranian missile attack on Israeli airbases. Meanwhile, Iran was reported to be constructing a large security barrier around two underground tunnel complexes linked to its main nuclear facility. Russia promised to fund the construction of a nuclear reactor in Iran. China, Russia, and Iran held a joint meeting with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) on April 24 to discuss Iran's nuclear program.
3rd round
The third round of high-level negotiations took place on April 26, 2025, along with the first round of expert-level talks. The high-level talks were described as serious and productive, with both sides aiming for an agreement based on mutual respect. Araghchi reported progress but noted that key differences remained. Trump's special envoy Witkoff aimed to finalize the deal within 60 days; however it was reported that mistrust between the parties could result in resistance from Iranian foreign minister Abbas Araghchi and could undermine this objective. Another critical issue was Iran's stockpile of highly enriched uranium and its potential destruction, for which the US would agree to lift economic sanctions. While Iran intended to retain its enriched uranium stockpile within its borders, the US insisted it must be transferred to a third country. Additionally, Iran sought guarantees to protect itself in the event that the US withdraws from or violates the agreement.
Post-third round developments
France warned that if no deal was reached on Iran's nuclear program, it was prepared to trigger the snapback mechanism to reinstate U.N. sanctions that were lifted under the JCPOA. Along with Britain and Germany, France could activate this process before the JCPOA expired in October, which would permanently cut Iran off from key technology, investment, and European markets, dealing a severe blow to its economy; however, Iranian foreign minister Araghchi later warned the European parties against initiating snapback sanctions, cautioning that such a move would severely harm the negotiations—a warning he repeated several times in the following weeks. Iran proposed holding further talks with European participation, while also offering investment opportunities.
On April 30, the US Treasury sanctioned 6 Chinese chemical components companies connected to Iran. On May 1, defense secretary Hegseth posted that Iran will pay for supporting Houthi attacks on merchant ships in Red Sea crisis. President Trump warned of secondary sanctions on entities buying any oil or petrochemicals from Iran. Rubio warned to walk away from nuclear enrichment. Araghchi canceled the May 4 meeting citing a "technical reason". Trump has called for the full dismantling of nuclear enrichment. Iran then unveiled a new ballistic missile and threatened to hit US military bases. Revolutionary Guard General Salami warned that IRGC would open hell gates on invaders.