The Mataram kingdom (, Javanese: ꦩꦠꦫꦩ꧀, Javanese pronunciation: [mətaram]), also known as the Medang kingdom, was a Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that flourished between the 8th and 11th centuries AD. It was based in Central Java, and later in East Java. Established by King Sanjaya, the kingdom was ruled by members the Shailendra dynasty during the late eighth century, and by the Ishana dynasty from 929 to 1017.
During most of its history the kingdom seems to have relied heavily on agriculture, especially extensive rice farming, and later also benefited from maritime trade. According to foreign sources and archaeological findings, the kingdom seems to have been well populated and quite prosperous. The kingdom developed a complex society, had a well developed culture, and achieved a degree of sophistication and refined civilisation.
In the period between the late 8th century and the mid-9th century, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese art and architecture reflected in the rapid growth of temple construction. Temples dotted the landscape of its heartland in Mataram. The most notable of the temples constructed in Mataram are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan, all quite close to the present-day city of Yogyakarta. At its peak, the kingdom had become a powerful state that exercised influence not only in Java, but also in Sumatra, Bali, southern Thailand, Indianised kingdoms of the Philippines, and the Khmer in Cambodia.
The Mataram kingdom went through various periods of unity and division. Political conflict occurred during the 840s, involving Salaḍū and his opponent Balaputra, and during the late 880s in the aftermath of Lokapāla I's death. Scholars disagree about whether this conflict was internal to a single ruling dynasty, or whether it was the result of the separate Shailendra dynasty and Sanjaya dynasty. Hostilities reemerged in 1017, when the reigning king Dharmawangsa Teguh was attacked by the vassal king of Wurawari, leading to the breakup of the Mataram state. The kingdom of Kahuripan, led a member of the Ishana dynasty called Airlangga, gradually established itself as Mataram's leading successor state in East Java.
Historiography
The history of the Mataram area as the capital of the Central Javanese Mataram kingdom is also part of the historical Yavadvipa or Bhumijava (the land of Java), and the classical Javanese civilisation. The Indians collectively called them Yawadvipa, the Khmer referred to them as Chvea, the Chinese called them Shepo, Chopo or Chao-wa, the Arabs called them Jawi, Jawah or Zabag, and Srivijayan refer to them as Bhumijava. The native Javanese most often refer to their lands and country simply as Jawi (Java), while the name of their nagara (country) is often based on their capital. The only foreign source mentioning Mdaη was found in the Philippines inscription, dated 822 saka (900 AD).
There are no comprehensive written records that have survived in Java except numbers of prasasti (inscriptions) written on stones or copper plates. These inscriptions most often recorded the political and religious deeds of the rulers. The most common theme mentioned in inscriptions is the establishment of Sima (taxed rice cultivation land recognised through royal edict), and sometimes some portion or the whole of tax collected from this Sima land is appointed to fund the construction and maintenance of religious building. Nevertheless, some local legends and historical records, written on lontar—most often dated from later period—might also provides data and source to reconstruct the historical event.
Native Javanese mythology and beliefs composed in the Mataram Sultanate era (circa 17th century AD), but probably originating from an earlier period, mentioned a semi-mythological kingdom named Medang Kamulan, which in Javanese translates to "Medang the origin" kingdom. The kingdom is mentioned in the myth of Dewi Sri and also Aji Saka. This is probably the remnant of vague native Javanese collective memory of the existence of an ancient kingdom called "Medang".
Current knowledge of historical Javanese civilisation is thus primarily derived from:
- Archaeological excavations, reconstruction and investigation of ancient structures, especially candi (temples), and also the discovery of ancient relics, such as the Wonoboyo hoard.
- Inscriptions, either stone or copper plate, most common are those which mention the establishment of sima agricultural village or the funding of temples, which report on the political and religious deeds of the kings, or stating their lineage; the most notable are the Canggal, Kalasan, Shivagrha and Balitung charter.
- Bas reliefs in a series of temple walls with depictions of life in the palace, village, temple, ship, marketplace and also the everyday lives of the population. The most notable are the bas reliefs found on Borobudur and Prambanan temple.
- Native manuscripts mentioning stories of kings, their deeds and exploits, that somehow link across to accounts mentioned in stone inscriptions. The notable example is the Carita Parahyangan.
- Reports and chronicles of foreign diplomats, traders and travellers, mainly from Chinese, Indian, and Arab sources.
Etymology
Mataram is the name in Sanskrit: मातरम्।, mātaram. Taken from the word मातृ mātṛ meaning "mother", has the same meaning as मातृभूमि mātṛbhūmi meaning "motherland". In the inscription it is referred to as kaḍatwan śrī mahārāja i bhūmi i mātaram, a phrase which means "Maharaja's kingdom in Mataram", as a form of mother personification which symbolises life, nature and the environment.
The name of the Mataram kingdom was known during the reign of Sanjaya (narapati rāja śrī sañjaya) which states in the Canggal inscription, dated from 654 Śaka or 732 AD, that he ruled in Java island (āsīddvīpavaraṁ yavākhyam). Then according to Mantyasih inscription in 829 Śaka or 907 AD he was called by a different title (saŋ ratu sañjaya). The name of the Mataram kingdom was first discovered by epigraphy in Wuatan Tija inscription 802 Śaka or 880 AD (dewatā prasiddha maṅrakṣa kaḍatwan śrī mahārāja i bhūmi i mātaram kita). The inscription data mentions a number of place names as the centre of government located in Central Java, including Shivagrha inscription 778 Śaka or 856 AD and Mantyasih inscription 829 Śaka or 907 AD. The inscription shows the names of places and their hierarchy, namely Mamratipura and Poh Pitu.
The name Medang then emerged from various inscriptions not only in Central Java but even in East Java. The name identifies that the Medang palace is located in the territory of the Mataram kingdom. The etymology of the name "Medang" might be derived from a local name of the hardwood "medang" tree which refer to trees of the genus Phoebe.
Until the reign of East Java the name Mataram was still found in inscriptions, including Turyan inscription 851 Śaka or 929 AD (kaḍatwan śrī mahārāja bhūmi mātaram kita pinakahurip niŋ rāt kabaiḥ) the capital city of Mataram is located in Tamwlang (śrī mahārāja makaḍatwan i tāmwlaŋ), later mentioned in Paradah inscription in 865 Śaka or 943 AD that the location of the capital city of Mataram has moved in Watugaluh (śrī mahārāja makaḍatwan i bhūmi mātaram i watugaluḥ) and Wwahan inscription 907 Śaka or 995 AD also reveals about the location of the new capital city of Mataram, namely in Watugaluh, this kingdom is still called Mataram (mātaram riŋ watugaluḥ), even though the centre of his kingdom had moved to East Java. From that long period of time, until now it can be known again from various inscriptions that give an overview of the structure of the Mataram kingdom as already mentioned.
The name "Mataram" was originally known in the 8th century AD as a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom then the name reappeared in the 16th century as one of the Islamic kingdom or known as Mataram Sultanate. As a result, the historiography of this kingdom is referred to as Ancient Mataram to distinguish it from Islamic Mataram.
This historic Javanese kingdom of Mataram should not be confused with the Mataram city located on Lombok island, currently the capital of West Nusa Tenggara province. The latter was actually the royal capital of the Cakranegara, a branch of Balinese Karangasem nobles that colonised Lombok in the early 19th century. Indeed, Lombok's Mataram city was named after the historic region of Mataram in Java, as it is a common practice for Balinese to name their settlements after their Javanese heritage.
History
The earliest account of the Mataram kingdom is in the Canggal inscription, dated 732 AD, discovered within the compound of Gunung Wukir temple in Canggal village, southwest of the town of Magelang. This inscription, written in Sanskrit using the Pallava script, tells of the erection of a lingga (a symbol of Shiva) on the hill in the Kunjarakunja area, located on a noble island called Yawadwipa (Java) which had an abundance of rice and gold. The establishment of lingga was under the order of Rakai Mataram Sang Ratu Sanjaya (King Sanjaya Rakai (lord) of Mataram). This inscription tells that Yawadwipa was ruled by King Sanna, whose long reign was marked by wisdom and virtue. After Sanna died, the kingdom fell into disunity. Sanjaya, the son of Sannaha (Sanna's sister) ascended to the throne. He conquered the areas around his kingdom, and his wise reign led to peace and prosperity for all of his subjects.
It seemed that Sanjaya came to power c. 717 AD; that was the starting year of Sanjaya chronicle used in King Daksa's inscription far later in the early 10th century. According to Canggal inscription, Sanjaya established a new kingdom in Southern Central Java. And yet it seems to be the continuation of earlier polity ruled by King Sanna, Sanjaya's uncle. This earlier polity is linked to the earlier temple structures in Dieng Plateau, in the northern part of Central Java, which is the oldest surviving structure found in Central Java. The earlier kingdom linked as the predecessor of Mataram kingdom is Kalingga, located somewhere in Central Java northern coast.
The story of Sanna and Sanjaya are also described in the Carita Parahyangan, a book from a later period composed around the late 16th century, which mainly describes the history of Pasundan (the Sunda kingdom). However, in this book, Sanjaya is described as Sanna's son, rather than his nephew. It also mentions that Sanna was defeated by Purbasora, King of Galuh, and retreated to Mount Merapi. So, to avenge the defeat of his father, Sanjaya attacked Galuh and killed Purbasora and his family. Afterwards, Sanjaya reclaimed Sanna's kingdom and ruled West Java, Central Java, East Java, and Bali. He also battled the Malayu and Keling (against their king, Sang Srivijaya). Although the manuscript seems to be romanticised, vague and not providing certain details on the period, nevertheless the almost exact name and theme of the story with historical Canggal inscription seems to confirm that the manuscript was based or inspired from the historical event.
Other than Gunung Wukir temple, it was probably during Sanjaya reign, that several Hindu temples were constructed in Muntilan and Mataram area on the slopes of Mount Merapi, such as Banon, Gunungsari, Kadisoka and Gebang temples. Those Hindu temples are estimated to be built during early Mataram kingdom era circa 8th century.
Golden age
The period between the reign of King Panangkaran to King Balitung (span between 760 and 910) that roughly lasted for 150 years, marked the apogee of Javanese classic civilisation. This period witnessed the blossoming of Javanese art and architecture, as numbers of majestic temples and monuments were erected and dominated the skyline of Kedu and Kewu Plain. Most notable of these temples are Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan temple. The Shailendras are known as ardent temple builders.
King Sanjaya was a Shaivite, and yet his successor Panangkaran was a Mahayana Buddhist. This shift of faith, from Shaivite Sanjaya to Buddhist Panangkaran has raised problematic questions among scholars; whether there were two competing royal families that dominated the political landscapes in Central Java, that each are patrons of either Shaivite Hinduism or Mahayana Buddhism. Or more recently suggested theory, that there were only one dynasty—the Shailendras—and there was only the shift or split of royal patronage in favour to Hinduism or Buddhism.
The great builder
Panangkaran (r. 760–780 AD) was an enthusiastic developer, he was credited for at least five major temple projects conducted and started during his reign. According to the Kalasan inscription (778 AD) and written in the Pranagari script in Sanskrit, the Kalasan temple was erected by the will of Guru Sang Raja Sailendravamçatilaka (the teacher of the ornament of Sailendra family), who persuaded Panangkaran (Sanjaya's successor) to construct a holy building for the goddess (boddhisattvadevi) Tara and build a vihara (monastery) for Buddhist monks from the Shailendra realm. Panangkaran also awarded Kalaça village to a sangha (Buddhist monastic community). The temple connected to this inscription is the Kalasan temple that housed the image of Tara, and the nearby Sari temple that was probably functioned as the monastery.
Panangkaran was also responsible for the construction of Abhayagiri Vihara, connected to the present-day of Ratu Boko. This hilltop compound was actually not a religious structure; consist of series of gates, ramparts, fortified walls, dry moats, walled enclosure, terraces and building bases. This site displays attributes of an occupation or settlement site, although its precise functions is unknown. This led to a suggestion that this compound probably was served as the palace. Initially it was likely intended as a secluded hilltop Buddhist monastery, as mentioned in the Abhayagiri Vihara inscription. However, later it seems to be converted to become a fortified palace or a citadel, which evidence in the remnant of defensive structures.
